For most of history, humanity knew how to live, because their religion guided their sense of good and bad. So what do we do at a time when many of us have no religion at all?

For popular philosopher Ryan Holiday, the answer is simple: turn to another set of ancient books for guidance. He thinks we have much to learn from the Stoics.

StoicismA philosophy that originated in the ancient world and still has many adherents today. Stoics seek to control their emotions and preserve their happiness in the face of adversity. is one of the world's oldest philosophies, dating all the way back to the 4th Century BC. It took its name from a famous porch in AthensOne of the great city-states of the ancient world and the birthplace of democracy., the Stoa Poikile, where the founder of the school, Zeno of CitiumAn ancient Athenian philosopher known for founding the Stoic school. , taught his students.¹

It was later taken up by many Romans, like SenecaA Roman philosopher. , CiceroConsidered one of the greatest orators of all time, he had defeated Catiline in the consular election. and Marcus AureliusA Stoic philosopher and Roman emperor from 161 to 180AD. , who admired what they saw as its manly moral prescriptions.

And it has gained many acolytesOne who helps or follows another, especially in a religious context of those assisting a priest. among the rich and famous of our own times, including tech CEOsChief Executive Officers. The highest-ranking person in a company. like Jack DorseyThe co-founder and former CEO of social media site Twitter, now renamed X. and celebrities like Arnold Schwarzenegger.²

Stoics hold that the key to happiness lies in oneself, not in others. As such, we should not rely on any other people. Stoic philosopher EpictetusA Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born into slavery. even suggested every time his followers kissed their child or their wife, they should remind themselves they would not be disturbed if these loved ones died.³

The mark of a Stoic is apathyLack of interest or enthusiasm. : not in the modern sense of laziness, but in its original meaning of "unfeelingness". Stoics believe that the good life is one free of passions, and so they should cultivate their self-control to the point where they see the world only through logic and not through irrational emotion.

For the original Stoics, the purpose of this was to understand nature, which they believed was essentially a vast, supernatural mind, which itself thought in purely logical terms.

A human being who had managed to strip their mind down to the purest, uncorrupted rationality would thus be able to think like nature.

These ideas are not unique to western philosophy. In fact, Stoicism has much in common with the older Chinese philosophy-religion of DaoismA philosophy and religion founded by Laozi. It teaches its disciples how to achieve perfection through self-cultivation., which emphasises simplicity, naturalness, and inactivity.

The highest ideal of the Daoist is to cultivate so deep an understanding of themselves and nature that they can allow the world's events to simply wash over them.

Modern Stoics are less likely to subscribe to pantheismThe belief that the universe is a manifestation of God - or that the universe is God. . But the idea of a universal, rational, calculating mind may have inspired some tech entrepreneurs' vision of AIA computer programme that has been designed to think. .

More important for modern Stoics is the philosophy's vision of the kind of life one should lead: impassive and self-sufficient.

Some think this is exactly the problem with Stoicism. It is the perfect ideology for the modern billionaire: it tells them there is virtue in individualism and that they do not need anyone else.

That may encourage them to keep producing technologies that harm the planet and the people who use them.

A better philosophy for the modern age, they argue, would emphasise not isolation but interconnectedness, the impossibility of being happy oneself if others are not happy as well.

Even Friedrich NietzscheA German classical scholar, philosopher, and critic of culture (1844 - 1900), who became one of the most influential of all modern thinkers. thought Stoicism made for a lonely life. He asked his readers if they could really live in a state of complete indifference: "Living, is that not precisely wanting to be different?"⁴

Should we all be Stoics?

Yes: In an age of religious disenchantmentThe feeling of disappointment with something you once admired. , we need a new moral code. Stoicism helps us to stand on our own two feet and builds our resilience against the troubles the world sends our way.

No: Stoicism is a philosophy of atomisationThe breaking of bonds or splitting of something into smaller groups. . It is unsuited to a world where we are all truly reliant on other people around the globe to provide everything for us, right down to the food we eat.

Or... There are arguments for and against being a Stoic, but the real problem is believing we can plunder ancient texts for ideas and ignore the context in which they were created.

Stoicism - A philosophy that originated in the ancient world and still has many adherents today. Stoics seek to control their emotions and preserve their happiness in the face of adversity.

Athens - One of the great city-states of the ancient world and the birthplace of democracy.

Zeno of Citium - An ancient Athenian philosopher known for founding the Stoic school.

Seneca - A Roman philosopher. 

Cicero - Considered one of the greatest orators of all time, he had defeated Catiline in the consular election.

Marcus Aurelius - A Stoic philosopher and Roman emperor from 161 to 180AD.

Acolytes - One who helps or follows another, especially in a religious context of those assisting a priest.

CEOs - Chief Executive Officers. The highest-ranking person in a company.

Jack Dorsey - The co-founder and former CEO of social media site Twitter, now renamed X.

Epictetus - A Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born into slavery.

Apathy - Lack of interest or enthusiasm.

Daoism - A philosophy and religion founded by Laozi. It teaches its disciples how to achieve perfection through self-cultivation.

Pantheism - The belief that the universe is a manifestation of God - or that the universe is God.

AI - A computer programme that has been designed to think. 

Friedrich Nietzsche - A German classical scholar, philosopher, and critic of culture (1844 - 1900), who became one of the most influential of all modern thinkers.

Disenchantment - The feeling of disappointment with something you once admired.

Atomisation - The breaking of bonds or splitting of something into smaller groups.